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Advertisements. In addition, there are medicines advertisements on radio and in print media, which increase the level of consumers' exposure to advertising. We found a variety of different forms of medicines advertising. Programmes were sometimes sponsored by medicines' manufacturers eg Propecia sponsored a rally driving event during our study period ; . Advertisements for these programmes then also contain the product name. A pharmacy marketing group also produces a `Family Health Diary', which, while ostensibly educating consumers about common health problems, usually advertises several medicines. Advertisements were frequently repeated. For example, in one 8-hour period on TV4 there were eight advertisements for Nicobrevin and four advertisements for Berocca. Some products had two or three different advertisements that they repeated in sequence. Studies that assess the impact of advertising on consumers must take account of this repetition: viewers may often be exposed to several advertisements for one product during one viewing session. People who watch particular types of programmes may also be exposed to higher levels of medicine advertising. For instance, there appears to be a high level of advertising of prescription medicines during sports coverage. Indeed, this is likely to be part of a targeting strategy by manufacturers and advertisers. This study cannot determine the impact of medicines advertisements on consumer behaviour. Previous studies on advertisements for prescription medicines have strongly suggested that advertisements have a powerful effect on consumers. Most research has focused on prescription-only medicines. Everett found that, when faced with a hypothetical situation, about one-third of his respondents said they would ask their doctor for a medicine they saw advertised.19 In Bell, Wilkes, and Kravitz's study, 15% of people said they would consider terminating their relationship with their doctor if they refused their request for an advertised drug. 20 And, in another study, 32% of consumers who had seen a DTC advertisement had talked to their doctor about an advertised medicine. Twenty-six percent had asked for a prescription for the advertised medicine; and of these, 71% received the prescription. 16 Mintzies et al, in study of patient visits to primary care physicians, found that doctors were ambivalent about the choice of treatment they gave in 40% of cases, and about 50% of cases where the patient had requested an advertised drug. 22 Using a quasiexperimental, interrupted time-series research design, Basara found a significant increase in the number of new prescriptions for a product during and after it was advertised direct to consumers.25 In a New Zealand survey, around 10% of consumers reported that an advertisement had prompted them to ask for a prescription-only medicine. Most of these had received the medicine they asked for.8 There are fewer studies looking at the effect of advertising on non-prescription medicines on consumers. In New Zealand, pharmacists have reported that consumers request pharmacist-only medicines after seeing advertisements for them. 26 In summary, further research should be undertaken on the whole range of medicines advertisements directed at consumers, their impact on consumer behaviour, and their public health consequences. This should include examining the health-related claims.

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Individual-level risk factors alone have not been able to account for the marked differences in the prevalence of pneumococcal carriage or resistance among various cities or counties 10, 14 ; . One explanation for this is that environmental or community characteristics such as poverty, educational level, or crowding may influence an individual's risk for carriage. This may be particularly relevant to outcomes describing infectious agents, such as S. pneumoniae, since transmission to a given child is likely to depend on whether neighboring children or family members have risk factors for organism acquisition. We show that routinely collected, publicly available characteristics of the community surrounding an individual can be predictive of pneumococcal or PNSP carriage in young children and cerivastatin 30. Szatmari P, Offord DR, Boyle MH. Correlates, associated impairments and patterns of services utilization of children with attention deficit disorder: findings from the Ontario Child Health Study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1989; 30: 205-217. Swanson JM. School-based Assessments and Interventions for ADD Students. Irvine, Calif: KC Publications; 1992. 32. Gresham FM, Elliott SN. Social Skills Rating System: Automated System for Scoring and Interpreting Standardized Test [computer program]. Version 1. Circle Pines, Minn: American Guidance Systems; 1989. 33. March JS, Parker JD, Sullivan K, Stallings P, Conners CK. The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children MASC ; : factor structure, reliability, and validity. J Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997; 36: 554-565. Wechsler Individual Achievement Test: Manual. San Antonio, Tex: Psychological Corp; 1992. 35. Abikoff H, Gittelman R. Classroom observation code: a modification of the Stony Brook Code. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1985; 21: 901-909. Barkley RA. Defiant Children: A Clinician's Manual for Parent Training. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1987. 37. Forehand R, MacMahon R. Helping the Noncompliant Child: A Clinician's Guide to Parent Training. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1980. 38. Pelham WE, Hoza B. Comprehensive treatment for ADHD: a proposal for intensive summer treatment programs and outpatient follow-up. In: Hibbs E, Jensen P, eds. Psychosocial Treatment Research of Child and Adolescent Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1996: 311-340. 39. Pelham W, Waschbusch D. Behavioral intervention in ADHD. In: Quay HP, Hogan AE, eds. Handbook of Disruptive Behavior Disorders. New York, NY: Plenum Publishing Corp; 1999: 255-278. 40. The MTA Cooperative Group. Mediators and moderators of treatment response for children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999; 56: 1088-1096. Pelham W. Pharmacotherapy for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. School Psychol Rev. 1993; 22: 199-227. Carlson CL, Pelham WE, Milich R, Dixon J. Single and combined effects of methylphenidate and behavior therapy on the classroom performance of children with ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1992; 20: 213-231. Laird NM, Ware JH. Random effect models for longitudinal data. Biometrics. 1982; 38: 963-974. Bryk AS, Raudenbush SW. Toward a more appropriate conceptualization of re.